Peter K Austin's top 10 endangered languages

The linguistics professor and author shares a personal selection

from the thousands of languages on the brink of disappearing *

Wednesday August 27 2008

Peter K Austin has published 11 books on minority and endangered

languages, including 12 Australian Aboriginal languages, and

holds the Märit Rausing Chair in field linguistics at the School

of Oriental and African Studies where he is also director of the

Endangered Languages Academic Programme. His most recent book is

1000 Languages: The Worldwide History of Living and Lost Tongues,

which explores the state of languages around the world.

There are more than 6,900 languages used around the world today,

ranging in size from those with hundreds of millions of speakers

to those with only one or two. Language experts now estimate that

as many as half of the existing languages are endangered, and by

the year 2050 they will be extinct. The major reason for this

language loss is that communities are switching to larger

politically and economically more powerful languages, like

English, Spanish, Hindi or Swahili.

Each language expresses the history, culture, society and

identity of the people who speak it, and each is a unique way of

talking about the world. The loss of any language is a loss to

both the community who use it in their daily lives, and to

humankind in general. The songs, stories, words, expressions and

grammatical structures of languages developed over countless

generations are part of the intangible heritage of all humanity.

So how to choose a top 10 from more than 3,000 endangered

languages? My selection is a personal one that tries to take into

account four factors: (1) geographical coverage - if possible I

wanted at least one language from each continent; (2) scientific

interest - I wanted to include languages that linguists find

interesting and important, because of their structural or

historical significance; (3) cultural interest - if possible some

information about interesting cultural and political aspects of

endangered languages should be included; and (4) social impact -

I wanted to include one or more situations showing why languages

are endangered, as well as highlighting some of the ways

communities are responding to the threat they currently face.

1. Jeru

Jeru (or Great Andamanese) is spoken by fewer than 20 people on

the Andaman Islands in the Indian Ocean. It is generally believed

that Andamanese languages might be the last surviving languages

whose history goes back to pre-Neolithic times in Southeast Asia

and possibly the first settlement of the region by modern humans

moving out of Africa. The languages of the Andamans cannot be

shown to be related to any other languages spoken on earth.

2. N|u (also called Khomani)

This is a Khoisan language spoken by fewer than 10 elderly people

whose traditional lands are located in the Kalahari Gemsbok

National Park in South Africa. The Khoisan languages are

remarkable for having click sounds – the | symbol is pronounced

like the English interjection tsk! tsk! used to express pity or

shame.The closest relative of N|u is !Xóõ (also called Ta'a and

spoken by about 4,000 people) which has the most sounds of any

language on earth: 74 consonants, 31 vowels, and four tones

(voice pitches).

3. Ainu

The Ainu language is spoken by a small number of old people on

the island of Hokkaido in the far north of Japan. They are the

original inhabitants of Japan, but were not recognised as a

minority group by the Japanese government until this year. The

language has very complicated verbs that incorporate a whole

sentence's worth of meanings, and it is the vehicle of an

extensive oral literature of folk stories and songs. Moves are

underway to revive Ainu language and cultural practices.

4. Thao

Sun Moon Lake of central Taiwan is the home of the Thao language,

now spoken by a handful of old people while the remainder of the

community speaks Taiwanese Chinese (Minnan). Thao is an

Austronesian language related to languages spoken in the

Philippines, Indonesia and the Pacific, and represents one of the

original communities of the Austronesians before they sailed

south and east over 3,000 years ago.

5. Yuchi

Yuchi is spoken in Oklahoma, USA, by just five people all aged

over 75. Yuchi is an isolate language (that is, it cannot be

shown to be related to any other language spoken on earth). Their

own name for themselves is Tsoyaha, meaning "Children of the

Sun". Yuchi nouns have 10 genders, indicated by word endings: six

for Yuchi people (depending on kinship relations to the person

speaking), one for non-Yuchis and animals, and three for

inanimate objects (horizontal, vertical, and round). Efforts are

now under way to document the language with sound and video

recordings, and to revitalise it by teaching it to children.

6. Oro Win

The Oro Win live in western Rondonia State, Brazil, and were

first contacted by outsiders in 1963 on the headwaters of the

Pacaas Novos River. The group was almost exterminated after two

attacks by outsiders and today numbers just 50 people, only five

of whom still speak the language. Oro Win is one of only five

languages known to make regular use of a sound that linguists

call "a voiceless dental bilabially trilled affricate". In rather

plainer language, this means it's produced with the tip of the

tongue placed between the lips which are then vibrated (in a

similar way to the brrr sound we make in English to signal that

the weather is cold).

7. Kusunda

The Kusunda are a former group of hunter-gatherers from western

Nepal who have intermarried with their settled neighbours. Until

recently it was thought that the language was extinct but in 2004

scholars at Tribhuvan University in Kathmandu located eight

people who still speak the language. Another isolate, with no

connections to other languages.

8. Ter Sami

This is the easternmost of the Saami group of languages (formerly

called Lapp, a derogatory term), located on the Kola Peninsula in

Russia. It is spoken by just 10 elderly people among

approximately 100 ethnic Ter Sami who all now speak Russian as

their daily language. Ter Sami is related to Finnish and other

Uralic languages spoken in Russia and Siberia, and distantly to

Hungarian.

9. Guugu Yimidhirr

Guugu Yimidhirr is an Australian Aboriginal language spoken at

Hopevale near Cooktown in northern Queensland by around 200

people. A wordlist was collected by Captain James Cook in 1770

and it has given English (and the rest of the world's languages)

the word kangaroo. Guugu Yimidhirr (like some other Aboriginal

languages) is remarkable for having a special way of speaking to

certain family members (like a man's father-in-law or

brother-in-law) in which everyday words are replaced by

completely different special vocabulary. For example, instead of

saying bama dhaday for "the man is going" you must say yambaal

bali when speaking to these relatives as a mark of respect and

politeness.

10. Ket

Ket is the last surviving member of a family of languages spoken

along the Yenesei River in eastern Siberia. Today there are

around 600 speakers but no children are learning it since parents

Prefer to speak to them in Russian. Ket is the only Siberian

language with a tone system where the pitch of the voice can give

what sound like identical words quite different meanings. (Much

like Chinese or Yoruba). To add to the difficulty for any

westerner wishing to learn it, it also has extremely complicated

word structure and grammar.

http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2008/aug/27/endangered.languages

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_languages

Wikipedia's page on endangered languages.

Lifelong Learning – what is it and why is it important?

Lifelong learning is not just about formal education or employer training and development programs. Lifelong learning involves a variety of growth opportunities, from structured formal environments to independent and informal or even self-driven settings.

According to the European Lifelong Learning Initiative, "lifelong learning is the development of human potential through a continuously supportive process which stimulates and empowers individuals to acquire all the knowledge, values, skills, and understanding they will require throughout their lifetimes and to apply them with confidence, creativity and enjoyment in all roles, circumstances, and environments."

Five benefits of Lifelong Learning

Lifelong Learning Sharpens Your Mind - Nonstop learning helps to keep your mind sharp and improve your memory, especially as you grow older. Research has shown that people with more education are less likely to have dementia in old age. Just like your body requires exercise to stay fit, your brain requires exercise to remain healthy. The best way to improve your reasoning and cognitive skills is to continually learn something new.

Lifelong Learning Increases Your Confidence - When someone hasn’t stepped out of their routine for a while, hasen't taken on a new challenge or really applied themselves to learning something new, they may find the experience a bit challenging. Lifelong learning helps you to gain confidence in your ability to learn and to share the information with others; you gain confidence in who you are and what you have to offer.

Lifelong Learning Sharpens Your Interpersonal Skills - Lifelong learning can take place in the quiet of a library reading a book or in a location where you meet other people who share the same interest. The opportunity to socialise can help to greatly improve your interpersonal skills.

When you are learning, you are engaged in life; you are engaged in those around you. And when you share what you know, you help others learn and further enhance your relationships.

Lifelong Learning Sharpens Your Career Opportunities - For anyone who has aspirations of career advancement, lifelong learning will need to be part of the package. Not only can learning enhance the skills you already have, it provides you with the opportunity to learn a new skill or trade and improve your chances of career growth. The more you know about your company, the industry, and current events, the more relevant your skills are to your organisation.

Lifelong Learning Sharpens Your Ability to Communicate - When you learn, you generally employ the skills of reading, listening and writing; skills essential to your ability to communicate.

Because human communication is such a large part of our daily work lives, it is a skill that most employers seek in their new hires. By enhancing these skills, you improve your ability to write a business letter, compile a marketing report, give a department presentation or even speak oneon- one to your boss.

Learning opens up so many doors. Lifelong learning opens those doors for you everyday of your life. Why would you ever choose to close them? Invest in yourself. Empower your life.

Poor Vocabulary?

Sometimes we go through one of those moments when the word we are looking for is not there in our repertoire. Even in our native language it happens, and it seems to happen to pretty much everyone, or at least often enough to make me think that. I've seen that momentin a lot of different situations, sometimes unimportant, sometimes funny and sometimes quite embarrassing.

Some of those words are known to us but they just decide to escape our heads when we need them, some we have no idea. It's in this second situation that I would like to focus, because it is an important issue to students and sometimes to teachers as well. No one knows all the words of any language, there is always something to learn.

As a long time student of the English language and as a teacher, vocabulary is a constant interest and something on which I spend some time and dedication. But there is one thing that I hear a lot and that I don't think that actually describes what happens, people say theyhave poor vocabulary. Well, that is not, in my opinion, a good way to describe it.

For start, if you are a student improving you vocabulary is a constant thing and part of the learning process, so it is natural that the number of words you know is not that big. To that there's one advice that I think fits here: research.

Try to find new words. When in class ask, when studying and facing something new, go after it's meaning.

Lots of times we can hear some new expression on TV or in a movie, try to write it down, even if you don't know the correct spelling, and then try to find it. We have so many resources today, having a good dictionary is very important, but when it's not near you, or when you still don't have one, the internet can help too. Be aware that sometimes it's not enough to find a word on-line, you should confirm its meaning later or get further research. But even so, the more you have the habit of learning new words, the faster your vocabulary will grow.

Second, a vocabulary cannot be poor. Very often we have to use a powerful tool: description. We describe what we are trying to say, what we mean or how we feel. Well, it's one of the poets' best weapon, let's use it when we need. You have your tools, the words you alreadyknow, use them, don't be ashamed to put you vocabulary to a rich use. That's one way to say that your vocabulary is not poor, you are learning, so are we all, what should be rich is the use you make of what you have.

That goes to a lot of things in life, naturally, so it is good advice to the use of language as well.

You will improve your language skills if you keep dedicating time and effort to it. Your vocabulary will grow in size and quality - which is even more important than quantity. But in the way, put what you have to a good use, that's why you are studying and that is communication.

Professor Gustavo.

(Do Time de Professores da A Frank Experience)

100 words You Should Know

Here are 100 advanced English words which should you be able to use them in a sentence will impress even educated native speakers! Perfect if you want to impress the examiner in examinations like: IELTS, TOEFL and Cambridge CAE and CPE. If you are really serious about having an extensive and impressive vocabulary, try learning these and then try these advanced vocabulary tests.

Part ONE / Part TWO

aberration
(n.) something that differs from the norm (In 1974, Poland won the World Cup, but the success turned out to be an aberration, and Poland have not won a World Cup since).

abhor
(v.) to hate, detest (Because he always wound up getting hit in the head when he tried to play cricket, Marcin began to abhor the sport).

acquiesce
(v.) to agree without protesting (Though Mr. Pospieszny wanted to stay outside and work in his garage, when his wife told him that he had better come in to dinner, he acquiesced to her demands.)

alacrity
(n.) eagerness, speed (For some reason, Simon loved to help his girlfriend whenever he could, so when his girlfriend asked him to set the table he did so with alacrity.)

amiable
(adj.) friendly (An amiable fellow, Neil got along with just about everyone.)

appease
(v.) to calm, satisfy (When Jerry cries, his mother gives him chocolate to appease him.)

arcane
(adj.) obscure, secret, known only by a few (The professor is an expert in arcane Kashubian literature.)

avarice
(n.) excessive greed (The banker’s avarice led him to amass an enormous personal fortune.)

brazen
(adj.) excessively bold, brash, clear and obvious (Critics condemned the writer’s brazen attempt to plagiarise Frankow-Czerwonko’s work.)

brusque
(adj.) short, abrupt, dismissive (Simon’s brusque manner sometimes offends his colleagues.)

cajole
(v.) to urge, coax (Magda's friends cajoled her into drinking too much.)

callous
(adj.) harsh, cold, unfeeling (The murderer’s callous lack of remorse shocked the jury.)

candor
(n.) honesty, frankness (We were surprised by the candor of the politician’s speech because she is usually rather evasive.)

chide
(v.) to voice disapproval (Hania chided Gregory for his vulgar habits and sloppy appearance.)

circumspect
(adj.) cautious (Though I promised Marta’s father I would bring her home promptly by midnight, it would have been more circumspect not to have specified a time.)

clandestine
(adj.) secret (Announcing to her boyfriend that she was going to the library, Maria actually went to meet George for a clandestine liaison.)

coerce
(v.) to make somebody do something by force or threat (The court decided that David Beckham did not have to honor the contract because he had been coerced into signing it.)

coherent
(adj.) logically consistent, intelligible (William could not figure out what Harold had seen because he was too distraught to deliver a coherent statement.)

complacency
(n.) self-satisfied ignorance of danger (Simon tried to shock his friends out of their complacency by painting a frightening picture of what might happen to them.)

confidant
(n.) a person entrusted with secrets (Shortly after we met, he became my chief confidant.)

connive
(v.) to plot, scheme (She connived to get me to give up my plans to start up a new business.)

cumulative
(adj.) increasing, building upon itself (The cumulative effect of hours spent using the World English website was a vast improvement in his vocabulary and general level of English.)

debase
(v.) to lower the quality or esteem of something (The large raise that he gave himself debased his motives for running the charity.)

decry
(v.) to criticize openly (Andrzej Lepper, the leader of the Polish Self Defence party decried the appaling state of Polish roads.)

deferential
(adj.) showing respect for another’s authority (Donata is always excessively deferential to any kind of authority figure.)

demure
(adj.) quiet, modest, reserved (Though everyone else at the party was dancing and going crazy, she remained demure.)

deride
(v.) to laugh at mockingly, scorn (The native speaker often derided the other teacher’s accent.)

despot
(n.) one who has total power and rules brutally (The despot issued a death sentence for anyone who disobeyed his laws.)

diligent
(adj.) showing care in doing one’s work (The diligent researcher made sure to double check her measurements.)

elated
(adj.) overjoyed, thrilled (When he found out he had won the lottery, the postman was elated.)

eloquent
(adj.) expressive, articulate, moving (The best man gave such an eloquent speech that most guests were crying.)

embezzle
(v.) to steal money by falsifying records (The accountant was fired for embezzling €10,000 of the company’s funds.)

empathy
(n.) sensitivity to another’s feelings as if they were one’s own (I feel such empathy for my dog when she’s upset so am I!)

enmity
(n.) ill will, hatred, hostility (John and Scott have clearly not forgiven each other, because the enmity between them is obvious to anyone in their presence.)

erudite
(adj.) learned (My English teacher is such an erudite scholar that he has translated some of the most difficult and abstruse Old English poetry.)

extol
(v.) to praise, revere (Kamila extolled the virtues of a vegetarian diet to her meat-loving boyfriend.)

fabricate
(v.) to make up, invent (When I arrived an hour late to class, I fabricated some excuse about my car breaking down on the way to work.)

feral
(adj.) wild, savage (That beast looks so feral that I would fear being alone with it.)

flabbergasted
(adj.) astounded (Whenever I read an Agatha Christie mystery novel, I am always flabbergasted when I learn the identity of the murderer.)

forsake
(v.) to give up, renounce (I won't forsake my conservative principles.)

fractious
(adj.) troublesome or irritable (Although the child insisted he wasn’t tired, his fractious behaviour - especially his decision to crush his jam sandwiches all over the floor - convinced everyone present that it was time to put him to bed.)

furtive
(adj.) secretive, sly (Claudia’s placement of her drugs in her sock drawer was not as furtive as she thought, as the sock drawer is the first place most parents look.)

gluttony
(n.) overindulgence in food or drink (Helen’s fried chicken tastes so divine, I don’t know how anyone can call gluttony a sin.)

gratuitous
(adj.) uncalled for, unwarranted (Every evening the guy at the fish and chip shop gives me a gratuitous helping of vinegar.)

haughty
(adj.) disdainfully proud (The superstar’s haughty dismissal of her co-stars will backfire on her someday.)

hypocrisy
(n.) pretending to believe what one does not (Once the politician began passing legislation that contradicted his campaign promises, his hypocrisy became apparent.)

impeccable
(adj.) exemplary, flawless (If your grades were as impeccable as your brother’s, then you too would receive a car for a graduation present.)

impertinent
(adj.) rude, insolent (Most of your comments are so impertinent that I don’t wish to dignify them with an answer.)

implacable
(adj.) incapable of being appeased or mitigated (Watch out: once you shun Grandmother’s cooking, she is totally implacable.)

impudent
(adj.) casually rude, insolent, impertinent (The impudent young woman looked her teacher up and down and told him he was hot.)

incisive
(adj.) clear, sharp, direct (The discussion wasn’t going anywhere until her incisive comment allowed everyone to see what the true issues were.)

indolent
(adj.) lazy (Why should my indolent children, who can’t even pick themselves up off the sofa to pour their own juice, be rewarded with a trip to Burger King?)

inept
(adj.) not suitable or capable, unqualified (She proved how inept she was when she forgot two orders and spilled a pint of cider in a customer’s lap.)

infamy
(n.) notoriety, extreme ill repute (The infamy of his crime will not lessen as time passes.)

inhibit
(v.) to prevent, restrain, stop (When I told you I needed the car last night, I certainly never meant to inhibit you from going out.)

innate
(adj.) inborn, native, inherent (His incredible athletic talent is innate, he never trains, lifts weights, or practices.)

insatiable
(adj.) incapable of being satisfied (My insatiable appetite for blondes was a real problem on my recent holiday in Japan!)

insular
(adj.) separated and narrow-minded; tight-knit, closed off (Because of the sensitive nature of their jobs, those who work for MI5 must remain insular and generally only spend time with each other.)

intrepid
(adj.) brave in the face of danger (After scaling a live volcano prior to its eruption, the explorer was praised for his intrepid attitude.)

inveterate
(adj.) stubbornly established by habit (I’m the first to admit that I’m an inveterate cider drinker—I drink four pints a day.)

Sorry, I Don't Speak English Very Well...

Certa vez, um brasileiro foi a Inglaterra e ao chegar lá, se perdeu. Em pânico, não conseguiu falar inglês, mas sorte dele, um " english man", que sabia falar português, veio lhe ajudar, porém, o sujeito foi logo avisando: " Desculpa! Eu não falar português muito bem, mas como poder te ajudar?"

- Mas você esta falando! - disse o brasileiro admirado.

- Eu saber! - disse o inglês - mas eu falar muito mal e ter vergonha do que você pensar.

- O importante é se comunicar, meu amigo inglês - disse o brasileiro - e não há nenhum mal em falar errado, se estamos nos esforçando para falar com alguém.

- Obrigada, brasileiro - disse o inglês - você tem razão, eu pensava assim também quando comecei alearn português. Acreditava que era melhor falar " eu falo pouco português", but you know, quando aprendemos uma língua, aprendemos também a cultura do seu povo e eu aprender a me desculpar assim por causa da maneira que eu falo, quando estive in Brazil.

- Como assim?

- Yes, eu viajei on business para São Paulo e quando cheguei na recepção da empresa que ia fazer um meeting, antes que eu terminasse de falar " good morning", a moça foi logo falando : " Sorry, I don't speak English very well, but how can I help you?", eu olhei admirado e pensei : " but você está falando, moça!" Achei que ela tinha se equivocado - continuou explicando o inglês - mas, very interesting, a pessoa com quem eu ia fazer a reunião, tão logo me viu, também nem me deixou acabar de falar " how are you?", e foi logo dizendo: " Sorry, I don't speak English very well, but welcome to São Paulo!". E isso se repetiu por toda a minha viagem, that's why, eu pensei que era certo pedir desculpas antes de falar. Obrigado, por me ensinar que mesmo falando pouco, eu não tenho do quê me envergonhar, therefore, é melhor falar " I speak a little Portuguese" que sair a dizer "sorry" por algo que eu deveria me sentir orgulhoso de conseguir mesmo um pouquinho falar.

At Last

A preposição ‘At’

por Rafael Alcântara

Como prometido, vou continuar a falar de preposições de lugar, ou seja, para quando quisermos dizer que algo ou alguém está em algum lugar (dentro, em cima, baixo, na, no, etc).

Como sempre o meu objetivo aqui é simplificar, por isso serei bem básico em meus exemplos. Tenho certeza de que esta era a explicação que todos nós queríamos, mas tínhamos vergonha de perguntar.

Hoje vou falar sobre a preposição AT, que para nós que falamos português, geralmente causa alguma dificuldade. Na verdade, o AT é uma preposição bem ampla, como você vai ver daqui a pouco.

Quer uma dica? Use o AT quando você quiser falar que alguém está em algum lugar sem entrar muito em detalhes. Se eu for a este lugar, eu seria capaz de encontrar a pessoa sem problemas.

at the bus-stop – no ponto de ônibus.

at the door – na porta.

at the cinema – no cinema.

at the end of the street – no fim da rua.

at work – no trabalho.

at the company – na empresa.

at the factory – na fábrica.

Está vendo, só? Se eu for a todos esses lugares, vou encontrar o que estou procurando sem problemas, afinal, o AT, entre outros usos, também serve para indicar um local. Mas, se você quiser ser mais preciso na sua explicação, basta voltar na aula sobre a preposição IN.

She works at TD BANK (Bem, difícil de encontrá-la por lá) in the Financial Department (Agora ficou mais fácil). – Ela trabalha no TD Bank no departamento financeiro.

Usamos AT quando queremos localizar algo em uma página:

at the top of the page. - no topo da página.

at the bottom of the page. - na parte debaixo da página.

O AT também é usado para nos localizarmos em algum lugar com pessoas.

at the back of the class - no fundo da classe.

at the front of the class - na frente da classe.

at the end of the corridor - no final do corridor.

at the front of the Audience - na frente da plateia.

Como um ponto no tempo.

at 10 o’clock - às dez horas.

at Christmas - no Natal.

at the moment - no momento.

at that time - naquele tempo.

at the close, at the opening - no fechamento, na abertura (do pregão da bolsa de valores).

O AT também é usado com um propósito ou objetivo para o qual a ação é dirigida.

he shouted at me - ele gritou comigo (com raiva).

to shoot, aim, hit at - atirar contra, apontar para, acertar em.

to rush at - lançar-se sobre.

to look at – olhar para.

Usado com palavras, ações ou ideias provocadas por sentimentos.

I was angry at John - fiquei zangado com John.

pleased at - satisfeito com.

alarmed at - inquieto, preocupado.

sick at heart - aflito.

Quer mais? O AT é usado em relação a uma situação de julgamento.

I am good at mathematics - Eu sou bom em matemática.

Melinda is good at telling gossip - Melinda é boa em contar fofoca.

He is good at baking cakes - Ele é bom em assar bolos.

Usado antes de superlativos.

at best, at the best - na melhor das hipóteses.

at worst, at the worst - na pior das hipóteses.

Usado com preços.

at ten cents each - a dez centavos cada.

at any price - a qualquer preço.

at half the price - pela metade do preço.

at par - ao par, ao valor nominal, sem ágio.

Usado antes de classe, grau, ordem, posição, velocidade.

at first - a princípio.

at ten miles per hour - a dez milhas por hora.

Usado também antes de idade.

at (the age of) 20 - aos 20 anos.

Viram como eu simplifico tudo? Pois é assim que tem que ser, não é mesmo?

source: http://www.oitoronto.ca

PREPOSITIONS - LOCATED IN TIME AND SPACE

A preposition describes a relationship between other words in a sentence. In itself, a word like "in" or "after" is rather meaningless and hard to define in mere words. For instance, when you do try to define a preposition like "in" or "between" or "on," you invariably use your hands to show how something is situated in relationship to something else. Prepositions are nearly always combined with other words in structures called prepositional phrases. Prepositional phrases can be made up of a million different words, but they tend to be built the same: a preposition followed by a determiner and an adjective or two, followed by a pronoun or noun (called the object of the preposition). This whole phrase, in turn, takes on a modifying role, acting as an adjective or an adverb, locating something in time and space, modifying a noun, or telling when or where or under what conditions something happened.

Consider the professor's desk and all the prepositional phrases we can use while talking about it.

You can sit before the desk (or in front of the desk). The professor can sit on the desk (when he's being informal) or behind the desk, and then his feet are under the desk or beneath the desk. He can stand beside the desk (meaning next to the desk), before the desk, between the desk and you, or even on the desk (if he's really strange). If he's clumsy, he can bump into the desk or try to walk through the desk (and stuff would fall off the desk). Passing his hands over the desk or resting his elbows upon the desk, he often looks across the desk and speaks of the desk or concerning the desk as if there were nothing else like the desk. Because he thinks of nothing except the desk, sometimes you wonder about the desk, what's in the desk, what he paid for the desk, and if he could live without the desk. You can walk toward the desk, to the desk, around the desk, by the desk, and even past the desk while he sits at the desk or leans against the desk.

All of this happens, of course, in time: during the class, before the class, until the class, throughout the class, after the class, etc. And the professor can sit there in a bad mood [another adverbial construction].

Those words in bold blue font are all prepositions. Some prepositions do other things besides locate in space or time — "My brother is like my father." "Everyone in the class except me got the answer." — but nearly all of them modify in one way or another. It is possible for a preposition phrase to act as a noun — "During a church service is not a good time to discuss picnic plans" or "In the South Pacific is where I long to be" — but this is seldom appropriate in formal or academic writing.

You may have learned that ending a sentence with a preposition is a serious breach of grammatical etiquette. It doesn't take a grammarian to spot a sentence-ending preposition, so this is an easy rule to get caught up on (!). Although it is often easy to remedy the offending preposition, sometimes it isn't, and repair efforts sometimes result in a clumsy sentence. "Indicate the book you are quoting from" is not greatly improved with "Indicate from which book you are quoting."

Based on shaky historical precedent, the rule itself is a latecomer to the rules of writing. Those who dislike the rule are fond of recalling Churchill's rejoinder: "That is nonsense up with which I shall not put." We should also remember the child's complaint: "What did you bring that book that I don't like to be read to out of up for?"

Is it any wonder that prepositions create such troubles for students for whom English is a second language? We say we are at the hospital to visit a friend who is in the hospital. We lie in bed but on the couch. We watch a film at the theater but on television. For native speakers, these little words present little difficulty, but try to learn another language, any other language, and you will quickly discover that prepositions are troublesome wherever you live and learn. This page contains some interesting (sometimes troublesome) prepositions with brief usage notes. To address all the potential difficulties with prepositions in idiomatic usage would require volumes, and the only way English language learners can begin to master the intricacies of preposition usage is through practice and paying close attention to speech and the written word. Keeping a good dictionary close at hand (to hand?) is an important first step.

Source: http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/prepositions.htm

Phrasal Verbs

By Grammar Girl

Listen up, everyone! Today’s topic is phrasal verbs, as in to listen up.

And now, guest-writer Bonnie Trenga writes, a listener, Paulino from Minneapolis, would like to know what phrasal verbs are and why they are called that.

Phrasal verbs always seemed to stump my students when I taught English as a second language in Tokyo, Japan. Even those of you who are native speakers might not know what a phrasal verb is, but you probably use one at least every hour. Let’s go over them, then (hint, hint!).

What Is a Phrasal Verb?

A phrasal verb is a verb that comprises more than one word, often a verb and a preposition, such as to back off or to hold up (1). Some other common ones are to give up, to break down, and to run out of. I imagine phrasal verbs are called that because the two (or sometimes three) components make up a phrase, and this set of words acts as a single verb unit. Phrasal verbs are often considered idioms or components of idioms (2). As with idioms like to kick the bucket, which is an impolite way of saying to die, the meaning of phrasal verbs doesn’t always make sense from the words used in the phrase.

This is definitely a challenge for students of English. For example, one meaning of the phrasal verb to hold up is to assault someone with a weapon in order to steal money or valuables. It has nothing to do with the verb to hold. Some phrasal verbs have multiple meanings, so that makes it even more difficult for language students. Another meaning of to hold up is to manage, as in “How are you holding up?” The sad news for English learners is that you have to just memorize phrasal verbs and their meanings, in the same way that French or Spanish learners have to memorize verb conjugations. And I’m sorry to say that there are thousands of phrasal verbs.

Splitting Phrasal Verbs

Not only do you have to memorize the meanings of phrasal verbs, but you also have to remember if you’re allowed to split the verb from the preposition. For example, if you use the phrasal verb to hold up, you could say, “The crook held up the bank” or you could say, “The crook held the bank up.”

But you can’t split up other phrasal verbs. For example, you have to say, “We ran out of napkins.” You couldn’t say, “We ran napkins out of.”

Formal Versus Informal

One listener wonders about all the cooks on TV, who use "up" after "fry." Is "fry up" a proper phrase? That's a good question. To fry and to fry up mean about the same thing, just as to eat means about the same thing as to eat up. In these cases, if you add an up, it makes your sentence more colloquial, more informal. I suppose the cooks on TV are being conversational and friendly when they advise you “to fry up a few jalapeños.” If they were writing a formal cookbook, though, I imagine they'd stick with to fry: “Take three jalapeños and fry them lightly.”

You, too, should use your judgment. For example, if you were writing a dissertation on Henry VIII, you might not want to write, “The king hung out with all the nobles.” It would probably be better to write, “The king associated with all the nobles.” If there’s a doubt, use more formal language.

Phrasal Verbs at the End of a Sentence

Some of you might be wondering what to do with a phrasal verb when it ends a sentence. Perhaps you were taught that it’s wrong to end a sentence with a preposition. That isn't always true, but even if it were, phrasal verbs are a unit, so if you end a sentence with a phrasal verb, you’re not ending it with a preposition; you’re ending it with a phrasal verb. For example, “Let’s kiss and make up” ends with the phrasal verb to make up, as in to reconcile. The sentence would not make sense if you deleted the up just to make a nosy grammarian happy: “Let’s kiss and make.” That clearly doesn't work.

When Phrasal Verbs Become Nouns and Adjectives

Although phrasal verbs are made of two or three separate words when you use them as verbs, you squish them together as a closed compound or use a hyphen when you turn them into nouns or adjectives. For example, you can “break down” (two words) or have a “breakdown” (one word). Or you can “tune up” your car (two words) or get your car a “tune-up” (hyphenated, tune-hyphen-up). Unfortunately, there are no firm rules and you'll have to check a dictionary to see whether you make a closed compound or hyphenate.

For all you non-native speakers who are listening, I know that phrasal verbs are frustrating. Lucia comments: “I hate phrasal verbs, they are ... too hard to remember ... and then you can misuse them and put yourself into really embarrassing situations. Could you give me some advice ... on these English mutant monsters?” Lucia, I’m sorry you see these as monsters. When I was an ESL teacher, I remember trying to explain the meaning of to clean, to clean up, to clean off, and to clean up after. There’s a subtle difference in the meaning of each. Eventually I decided to write a guide to 120 of the most common phrasal verbs. Since I saw myself as a humorous, off-the-wall teacher, I called it Off-the-Wall Skits with Phrasal Verbs.

It’s a real achievement when English learners can master common phrasal verbs and sound like a native. Lucia was right, though; you can put your foot in your mouth if you make a small mistake with a phrasal verb, so be careful. As for you native speakers listening, just remember that there are no hyphens in phrasal verbs when you use them as verbs. Check your dictionary when you use adjectives or nouns that are derived from them.

Administrative

Thanks to Bonnie Trenga, author of The Curious Case of the Misplaced Modifier, for guest-writing this episode. She blogs at http://sentencesleuth.blogspot.com.

Remember, Grammar Girl's Quick and Dirty Tips for Better Writing is available now. It's a great reference for anyone, whether you are a grammar enthusiast, a student, or just want to improve your writing.

Questions or comments can be e-mailed to feedback@quickanddirtytips.com or sent via Facebook and Twitter.

That's all.

References

1. Garner, B. Garner's Modern English Usage. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2003, p. 608.

2. http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O29-PHRASALVERB.html. Accessed June 18, 2008.

Source: http://grammar.quickanddirtytips.com/phrasal-verbs.aspx

Ending a Sentence With a Preposition

By the Grammar Girl

One of the most frequent questions I’m asked is whether it’s acceptable to end a sentence with a preposition.

I know many of you were taught that you shouldn’t end a sentence with a preposition, but it’s a myth. In fact, I consider it one of the top ten grammar myths because many people believe it’s true, but because nearly all grammarians disagree, at least in some cases (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8).

So before I lose you, let's back up. What is a preposition?

What Is a Preposition?

A preposition is a word that creates a relationship between other words. It's been said that prepositions often deal with space and time (1), which always makes me think of Star Trek. For example, the prepositions “above,” “by,” and “over” all say something about a position in space; the prepositions “before,” “after,” and “since” all say something about time.

When Can a Sentence End with a Preposition?

Here's an example of a sentence that can end with a preposition: What did you step on? A key point is that the sentence doesn't work if you leave off the preposition. You can't say, “What did you step?” You need to say, “What did you step on?” to make a grammatical sentence.

I can hear some of you gnashing your teeth right now, while you think, “What about saying, 'On what did you step?'” But really, have you ever heard anyone talk that way? I've read long, contorted arguments from noted grammarians about why it's OK to end sentences with prepositions when the preposition isn't extraneous (1), but the driving point still seems to be, “Nobody in their right mind talks this way.” Yes, you could say, “On what did you step?” but not even grammarians think you should. It sounds pedantic.

I've read long arguments about why it's OK to end sentences with prepositions when the preposition isn't extraneous, but the driving point still seems to be “Normal people don't talk that way.”When Can't You End a Sentence with a Preposition?

But, you can't always end sentences with prepositions. When you could leave off the preposition and it wouldn't change the meaning, you should leave it off. Here is a cell phone commercial that gets on my nerves.

[Where you at?]

For the purposes of today’s discussion, let’s ignore the fact that they left out the verb “are” because I’ve definitely heard people ask, “Where are you at?”

The problem is that “Where are you at?” doesn't need the preposition at the end. If you say “Where are you?” it means the same thing. So the "at" is unnecessary. You should leave it off.

Unnecessary Prepositions

The problem with unnecessary prepositions doesn't happen just at the end of sentences. People often throw extraneous prepositions into the middle of sentences, and they shouldn't (2). Instead of saying “Squiggly jumped off of the dock,” it's better to say “Squiggly jumped off the dock.” You see? You don't need to say “off of the dock”; “off the dock” says the same thing without the preposition.

Another example is “outside of” when “outside” by itself would do just fine. You should say, “He's outside the door,” not, “He's outside of the door.”

Sentences Can End with Prepositions from Phrasal Verbs

So far, my examples of prepositions at the end of sentences have all been questions. Lest you think they’re a special case, we’ll look at some sentences that aren’t questions.

English has a type of verb called a phrasal verb. These are verbs made up of multiple words, and one is always a preposition. “Cheer up,” “run over,” “log on,” and “leave off” are all examples of phrasal verbs, and often sentences that use phrasal verbs end with a preposition:

I wish he would cheer up.

You should leave it off.

Those are perfectly acceptable sentences.

Other Sentences Can End with Prepositions Too

It’s also OK to end a sentence with a preposition sometimes even when you aren’t using a phrasal verb. For example, although you could rewrite the following sentences to avoid ending them with a preposition, you don’t need to.

She displayed the good humor she’s known for. (Could be rewritten as “She displayed the good humor for which she’s known.”)

I want to know where he came from. (Could be rewritten as “I want to know from where he came.”)

Cover Letter Grammar

I said you don’t need to rewrite those sentences, but because of the prevalent myth that it’s wrong to end sentences with prepositions, there are times when you should avoid doing it even though it isn’t wrong. For example, when you’re writing a cover letter to a potential employer, don’t end a sentence with a preposition. The person reading the letter could see it as an error. I always recommend following the most conservative grammar rules in job applications. I’d rather be hired than lose out on an opportunity because my grammar was correct--but perceived as wrong.

But once you're hired and you’re in a position to have a discussion about grammar, don’t be afraid to end sentences with prepositions as long as the preposition isn’t unnecessary. Just be ready to show your boss a good style guide or this Web page and do your part to dispel one of the top ten grammar myths.

References

Huddleston, R. and Pullman, G.K. A Student's Introduction to English Grammar. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006, p. 20, 137-8.

Strumpf, M. and Douglas, A. The Grammar Bible. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2004, p. 231, 217.

Thurman, S. The Only Grammar Book You'll Ever Need. Avon: Adams Media, 2003, p.32.

Stilman, A. Grammatically Correct. Cincinnati: Writer's Digest Books, 2004, p.264.

O’Connor, P. “The Living Dead: Let Bygone Rules Be Gone” Grammarphobia.com, http://www.grammarphobia.com/grammar.html (accessed March 29, 2011).

Lutz, G. and Stevenson, D. Grammar Desk Reference. Cincinnati: Writer's Digest Books, 2005, p. 41.

Garner, B. Garner’s Modern American Usage. Oxford University Press, 2009, p. 654.

Wilson, K. G. The Columbia Guide to Standard American English. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993, p. 341.

Source: http://grammar.quickanddirtytips.com/ending-prepositions.aspx

A Little Respect

Durante uma aula de inglês, há sempre o momento " Ahà" - o instante em que ocorre o entendimento de alguma regra gramatical ou a absorção de uma palavra essencial ou até mesmo, importantíssimo, o momento em que a comunicação flui e o estudante se percebe falando naturalmente, mas algo muito mais importante ocorre: o celular toca e o estudante atende:

- Alô? Posso falar sim, tô no meio da aula de inglês! E aí...

Nooooooooooooo!!!!! - eu grito mentalmente, vendo semanas de trabalho se dissolvendo numa distração que atrapalha completamente o sucesso do aprendizado alcançado.

Exagero? Não !
Falta de respeito mesmo.

Falta respeito comigo, o professor, pois ao atender o telefone em plena aula, a mensagem é bem clara: "a ligação é mais importante que o seu trabalho, teacher. Sorry!"

Falta respeito com ele, o estudante, pois ao atender o telefone em pleno processo de aprendizado, ele reforça a mensagem que qualquer outra coisa é mais importante que aprender inglês naquele momento: "por quê veio para aula, at first place?" - I wonder.

Falta a little respect com tudo aquilo que ele colocou como objetivo na vida ( falar inglês supostamente o ajudaria), falta respeito com tudo aquilo que ele alcançou até aquele momento ( tempo e dinheiro foram gastos e compreensão e absorção de informação não vem com o livro de gramática nem se adquire com caneta mágica) e falta respeito com tudo aquilo que seus pais lhe ensinaram , pois ao fazer isso em plena aula, ele apenas demonstra uma grande falta de educação mesmo.

100 words You Should Know

Here are 100 advanced English words which should you be able to use them in a sentence will impress even educated native speakers! Perfect if you want to impress the examiner in examinations like: IELTS, TOEFL and Cambridge CAE and CPE. If you are really serious about having an extensive and impressive vocabulary, try learning these and then try these advanced vocabulary tests.

Part ONE / Part TWO

aberration
(n.) something that differs from the norm (In 1974, Poland won the World Cup, but the success turned out to be an aberration, and Poland have not won a World Cup since).

abhor
(v.) to hate, detest (Because he always wound up getting hit in the head when he tried to play cricket, Marcin began to abhor the sport).

acquiesce
(v.) to agree without protesting (Though Mr. Pospieszny wanted to stay outside and work in his garage, when his wife told him that he had better come in to dinner, he acquiesced to her demands.)

alacrity
(n.) eagerness, speed (For some reason, Simon loved to help his girlfriend whenever he could, so when his girlfriend asked him to set the table he did so with alacrity.)

amiable
(adj.) friendly (An amiable fellow, Neil got along with just about everyone.)

appease
(v.) to calm, satisfy (When Jerry cries, his mother gives him chocolate to appease him.)

arcane
(adj.) obscure, secret, known only by a few (The professor is an expert in arcane Kashubian literature.)

avarice
(n.) excessive greed (The banker’s avarice led him to amass an enormous personal fortune.)

brazen
(adj.) excessively bold, brash, clear and obvious (Critics condemned the writer’s brazen attempt to plagiarise Frankow-Czerwonko’s work.)

brusque
(adj.) short, abrupt, dismissive (Simon’s brusque manner sometimes offends his colleagues.)

cajole
(v.) to urge, coax (Magda's friends cajoled her into drinking too much.)

callous
(adj.) harsh, cold, unfeeling (The murderer’s callous lack of remorse shocked the jury.)

candor
(n.) honesty, frankness (We were surprised by the candor of the politician’s speech because she is usually rather evasive.)

chide
(v.) to voice disapproval (Hania chided Gregory for his vulgar habits and sloppy appearance.)

circumspect
(adj.) cautious (Though I promised Marta’s father I would bring her home promptly by midnight, it would have been more circumspect not to have specified a time.)

clandestine
(adj.) secret (Announcing to her boyfriend that she was going to the library, Maria actually went to meet George for a clandestine liaison.)

coerce
(v.) to make somebody do something by force or threat (The court decided that David Beckham did not have to honor the contract because he had been coerced into signing it.)

coherent
(adj.) logically consistent, intelligible (William could not figure out what Harold had seen because he was too distraught to deliver a coherent statement.)

complacency
(n.) self-satisfied ignorance of danger (Simon tried to shock his friends out of their complacency by painting a frightening picture of what might happen to them.)

confidant
(n.) a person entrusted with secrets (Shortly after we met, he became my chief confidant.)

connive
(v.) to plot, scheme (She connived to get me to give up my plans to start up a new business.)

cumulative
(adj.) increasing, building upon itself (The cumulative effect of hours spent using the World English website was a vast improvement in his vocabulary and general level of English.)

debase
(v.) to lower the quality or esteem of something (The large raise that he gave himself debased his motives for running the charity.)

decry
(v.) to criticize openly (Andrzej Lepper, the leader of the Polish Self Defence party decried the appaling state of Polish roads.)

deferential
(adj.) showing respect for another’s authority (Donata is always excessively deferential to any kind of authority figure.)

demure
(adj.) quiet, modest, reserved (Though everyone else at the party was dancing and going crazy, she remained demure.)

deride
(v.) to laugh at mockingly, scorn (The native speaker often derided the other teacher’s accent.)

despot
(n.) one who has total power and rules brutally (The despot issued a death sentence for anyone who disobeyed his laws.)

diligent
(adj.) showing care in doing one’s work (The diligent researcher made sure to double check her measurements.)

elated
(adj.) overjoyed, thrilled (When he found out he had won the lottery, the postman was elated.)

eloquent
(adj.) expressive, articulate, moving (The best man gave such an eloquent speech that most guests were crying.)

embezzle
(v.) to steal money by falsifying records (The accountant was fired for embezzling €10,000 of the company’s funds.)

empathy
(n.) sensitivity to another’s feelings as if they were one’s own (I feel such empathy for my dog when she’s upset so am I!)

enmity
(n.) ill will, hatred, hostility (John and Scott have clearly not forgiven each other, because the enmity between them is obvious to anyone in their presence.)

erudite
(adj.) learned (My English teacher is such an erudite scholar that he has translated some of the most difficult and abstruse Old English poetry.)

extol
(v.) to praise, revere (Kamila extolled the virtues of a vegetarian diet to her meat-loving boyfriend.)

fabricate
(v.) to make up, invent (When I arrived an hour late to class, I fabricated some excuse about my car breaking down on the way to work.)

feral
(adj.) wild, savage (That beast looks so feral that I would fear being alone with it.)

flabbergasted
(adj.) astounded (Whenever I read an Agatha Christie mystery novel, I am always flabbergasted when I learn the identity of the murderer.)

forsake
(v.) to give up, renounce (I won't forsake my conservative principles.)

fractious
(adj.) troublesome or irritable (Although the child insisted he wasn’t tired, his fractious behaviour - especially his decision to crush his jam sandwiches all over the floor - convinced everyone present that it was time to put him to bed.)

furtive
(adj.) secretive, sly (Claudia’s placement of her drugs in her sock drawer was not as furtive as she thought, as the sock drawer is the first place most parents look.)

gluttony
(n.) overindulgence in food or drink (Helen’s fried chicken tastes so divine, I don’t know how anyone can call gluttony a sin.)

gratuitous
(adj.) uncalled for, unwarranted (Every evening the guy at the fish and chip shop gives me a gratuitous helping of vinegar.)

haughty
(adj.) disdainfully proud (The superstar’s haughty dismissal of her co-stars will backfire on her someday.)

hypocrisy
(n.) pretending to believe what one does not (Once the politician began passing legislation that contradicted his campaign promises, his hypocrisy became apparent.)

impeccable
(adj.) exemplary, flawless (If your grades were as impeccable as your brother’s, then you too would receive a car for a graduation present.)

impertinent
(adj.) rude, insolent (Most of your comments are so impertinent that I don’t wish to dignify them with an answer.)

implacable
(adj.) incapable of being appeased or mitigated (Watch out: once you shun Grandmother’s cooking, she is totally implacable.)

impudent
(adj.) casually rude, insolent, impertinent (The impudent young woman looked her teacher up and down and told him he was hot.)

incisive
(adj.) clear, sharp, direct (The discussion wasn’t going anywhere until her incisive comment allowed everyone to see what the true issues were.)

indolent
(adj.) lazy (Why should my indolent children, who can’t even pick themselves up off the sofa to pour their own juice, be rewarded with a trip to Burger King?)

inept
(adj.) not suitable or capable, unqualified (She proved how inept she was when she forgot two orders and spilled a pint of cider in a customer’s lap.)

infamy
(n.) notoriety, extreme ill repute (The infamy of his crime will not lessen as time passes.)

inhibit
(v.) to prevent, restrain, stop (When I told you I needed the car last night, I certainly never meant to inhibit you from going out.)

innate
(adj.) inborn, native, inherent (His incredible athletic talent is innate, he never trains, lifts weights, or practices.)

insatiable
(adj.) incapable of being satisfied (My insatiable appetite for blondes was a real problem on my recent holiday in Japan!)

insular
(adj.) separated and narrow-minded; tight-knit, closed off (Because of the sensitive nature of their jobs, those who work for MI5 must remain insular and generally only spend time with each other.)

intrepid
(adj.) brave in the face of danger (After scaling a live volcano prior to its eruption, the explorer was praised for his intrepid attitude.)

inveterate
(adj.) stubbornly established by habit (I’m the first to admit that I’m an inveterate cider drinker—I drink four pints a day.)

Can You Raed Tihs?

i cdnuolt blveiee taht I cluod aulaclty uesdnatnrd waht I was rdanieg.

The phaonmneal pweor of thehmuan mnid, aoccdrnig to a rscheearch at Cmabrigde Uinervtisy, it dseno’t mtaetr in waht oerdr the ltteres in a wrod are, the olny iproamtnt tihng istaht the frsit and lsat ltteer be in the rghit pclae.

The rset can be a taotl mses and you can sitll raed it whotuit a pboerlm. Tihs is bcuseae the huamn mnid deos not raed ervey lteter by istlef, but the wrod as a wlohe.

Azanmig huh?

yaeh and I awlyas tghuhot slpeling was ipmorantt!

Talking Irish-English

By Richard Nordquist

If you celebrate St. Patrick's Day with plastic pitchers of green beer and rousing choruses of "Danny Boy" (composed by an English lawyer) and "The Unicorn" (by Shel Silverstein), you may be roaring just about anywhere in the world this week--except in Ireland. And if your friends insist on hollering "top o' the mornin'" and "begosh and begorrah," you can be pretty sure they're not Irish.

The English language as spoken in Ireland (a variety known as Hiberno-English or Irish English) has many distinctive features--none of which should be confused with your friends' Celtic clichés or the Hollywood brogues of Tom Cruise (in Far and Away) and Brad Pitt (in The Devil's Own).

As examined by Markku Filppula in The Grammar of Irish English: Language in Hibernian Style (Routledge, 1999), Irish-English grammar "represents a unique combination of elements drawn from the two principal partners in the contact situation, Irish and English." This grammar is characterized as "conservative" because it has held on to certain traits of the Elizabethan English that helped shape it four centuries ago.

Here are just a few of the characteristics of Irish-English grammar:

Like Scottish English, Irish English has unmarked plurality in nouns indicating time and measure--"two mile," for instance, and "five year."

Irish English makes an explicit distinction between singular you/ye and plural youse (also found in other varieties): "So I said to our Jill and Mary: 'Youse wash the dishes.'"

Another characteristic of Irish English is nominalization, giving a word or phrase a noun-like status that it doesn't generally have, as in "If I had the doing of it again, I'd do it different."

A direct borrowing from the traditional Irish language (also known as Irish Gaelic or Gaeilge) is the use of after in noun phrases such as "I'm only after my dinner."

Like Scottish English, Irish English often uses progressive forms of stative verbs ("I was knowing your face").

Another salient feature is the use of sentence tags initiated by so, as in "It's raining, so it is."

(adapted from World Englishes: An Introduction, by Gunnel Melchers and Philip Shaw. Oxford University Press, 2003)

That's just a small sample of the many distinctive features of Irish-English grammar. Discussion of its rich vocabulary (or lexicon) and patterns of pronunciation (phonology) will have to wait until next year's St. Patrick's Day.

Until then, if you're interested in learning about Gaeilge (the historical language of the Irish people, now spoken by only a small minority of the population), visit Michelle Gallen's website, Talk Irish. Marking its first anniversary this week, the award-winning site provides a social network for teachers, speakers and learners of traditional Irish.

Slán go fóill. Goodbye for now.

Source: http://grammar.about.com/b/2010/03/17/talking-irish-english.htm

IMPROVING YOUR VOCABULAY IN ENGLISH

There are many ways to improve your vocabulary. When working to improve your vocabulary it's important to know your goals in order to best choose the way in which you want to learn. Reading can be a great way to improve your vocabulary. However, it won't be much help on a vocabulary test next week. Here are a number of methods to help you improve, and expand, your English vocabulary.
Difficulty: Average
Time Required: from 30 minutes to 3 or more hours

Here's How:

Vocabulary Trees
Vocabulary trees help provide context. Once you've mapped out a few vocabulary trees, you'll discover yourself thinking in vocabulary groups. When you see a cup your mind will quickly relate such words as knife, fork, late, dishes, etc. This overview to vocabulary trees provides will help you get started.

Create Vocabulary Themes
Create a list of vocabulary themes, include the vocabulary, a definition and an example sentence for each new item.

Use Technology to Help You
Watching DVDs is a great way to help you understand native speakers of English. Using all the fancy options watching individual scenes can help make DVD use into a vocabulary learning exercise.

Specific Vocabulary Lists
Rather than studying a long list of unrelated vocabulary, use specific vocabulary lists to help you prepare for the type of vocabulary you need for work, school or hobbies. These business vocabulary word lists are great for industry specific vocabulary items.

Word Formation Charts
Word formation is one of the keys to success for advanced level ESL learners. Advanced level English exams such as the TOEFL, First Certificate CAE and Proficiency use word formation as one of the key testing elements. These word formation charts provide the concept noun, personal noun, adjective and verb forms of key vocabulary listed in alphabetical order.

Visual Dictionaries
A picture is worth a thousand words. It's also very helpful for learning precise vocabulary. There are a number of excellent English learner visual dictionaries for sale. Here is an online version of a visual dictionary dedicated to jobs.

Learn Collocations
Collocations refer to words that often or always go together. A good example of a collocation is to do your homework. These lists of important verb + noun collocations will help your learn some of the most important.

Use a Corpus
Corpora are huge collections of documents that can track the number of times a word is used. By using a corpora, you can find which words are often used together with target vocabulary words. Combining corpora use with vocabulary trees is a great way to learn key vocabulary for specific vocabulary target areas. You can get started by visiting the British National Corpus.

Tips:
* Use vocabulary learning methods to focus quickly on the vocabulary YOU need to study.
* Don't make random lists of new words. Try to group words in themes. This will help you memorize new words more quickly.
* If you have the time, and even if you think you don't have the time, try to add context. Writing a few example sentences using new vocabulary will help you remember the words in context.
* Keep a vocabulary notepad at hand whenever you are reading in English.

Dicas Para Aumentar Seu Vocabulário Em Inglês

Você já sabia que precisava enriquecer o seu vocabulário em inglês antes de ler esta apostila. E agora sabe como usar o seu dicionário para poder fazer isto. Com um pouco de esforço você poderá aprender milhares de palavras novas em inglês no próximo ano e em diante. Então quero te dar algumas dicas de como fazer isto com eficiência e rapidez.

Estabeleça Um Alvo

Quantas palavras novas você pretende aprender com a ajuda do seu dicionário cada dia ou semana ou mês? Se aprender apenas cinco por dia, você aprenderá 1825 palavras durante o próximo ano.

Estabelecer um objetivo te estimulará a usar o seu dicionário diariamente. Você saberá o que precisa fazer para alcançar o seu objetivo de falar o idioma.

A vantagem disto é que você terá uma meta concreta para alcançar. Você pode dizer “Eu quero aprender a falar inglês fluentemente”. Mas não seria melhor dizer, “Eu vou aprender 150 palavras este mês”? É um alvo muito mais objetivo do que o primeiro.

Estabelecer alvos concretos te ajudará a aumentar o seu vocabulário em inglês e aprender o idioma fluentemente e de forma concreta.

Leia Com Mais Freqüência Em Inglês

Estabeleça um local e um horário fixo para ler toda semana...ou todos os dias se possível. Comece com as coisas que você já gosta de ler...só que agora em inglês.

Se você costuma ler o jornal...busque jornais internacionais on-line. Se você gosta de ficção científica...procure livros deste tipo on-line que são na língua inglesa.

Se você está iniciando o seu aprendizado do idioma, talvez seja difícil achar o material que você gosta num nível adequado. Neste caso, você terá que começar com materiais simples, e progredir em direção aos materiais que você deseja.

Neste caso, comece com textos simples...como livros de crianças ou textos desenvolvidos especificamente com o aluno de inglês em mente.

Mas não se limite apenas ao tipo de material que você gosta. Leia tudo que poder. Devora tudo que ver pela frente. Isto te ajudará a adquirir um vocabulário em inglês mais amplo e rico.

Utilize O Seu Novo Vocabulário

Sempre que converse com alguém ou escreva um e-mail, procure usar as novas palavras que está aprendendo. Alem de reforçá-las, você também acabará impressionando as pessoas com o seu amplo e rico vocabulário em inglês. Tente usar pelo menos três palavras novas cada vez que você se comunica com alguém.

Faça Novas Amizades

Encontre novas pessoas ao seu redor como outros alunos...ou on-line através de redes sociais como Facebook.com ou MySpace.com com quem pode praticar o seu inglês. Além de ser uma boa forma de praticar as suas novas palavras...estas pessoas também podem te ensinar outras palavras que você ainda não conhece.

E o melhor de tudo é que, como falar com amigos é divertido...você não vai pensar nesta tarefa como trabalho ou estudo. Você acabará aprendendo o idioma enquanto se diverte e faz o que gosta.

Palavra do Dia

Existem muitos sites que enviam uma palavra nova cada dia com o significado e frases que ilustram o uso da palavra. Esta palavra já te ajudará a alcançar o alvo de palavras que estabeleceu e aumentará o seu vocabulário em inglês.

Um site que ofereça este serviço é o Wordsmith. É só preencher os seus dados, e você receberá uma nova palavra para aprender todos os dias.

Você também pode criar um cadastro no iGoogle e personalizar a sua página principal. Depois clique em ‘Adicionar Conteúdo’. Faça uma busca pelo termo ‘word of the day’ e adicione o conteúdo que você gostaria de ter na sua página principal.

Cada vez que você acesse o iGoogle você verá a nova palavra do dia. Conteúdo recomendado seria do Merriam-Webster.com, Dictionary.com, e Wordsmith.org

Jogos Com Palavras

Outra forma de aprender palavras novas enquanto se divirta é de brincar jogos como ‘Boggle’, ‘Scrabble’, ou ‘Catch-Phrase’ com amigos on-line. Também há muitos outros jogos disponíveis para te ajudar a aumentar o seu vocabulário em inglês. Sempre que estiver jogando, e alguém usa uma palavra nova, não esqueça de perguntar o que significa.

Se você ainda estiver iniciando o seu aprendizado e acha estes jogos muito difíceis, pode procurar outros que sejam mais simples. Ou pode fazer algumas atividades que não sejam competitivas.

Uma atividade simples que você pode fazer é escolher uma palavra. Depois abra o dicionário tentando acerta a página correta. Se não acertar você não terá que pagar uma prenda. Mas já que está naquela página, aproveite a oportunidade para aprender uma palavra nova.

Você encontrará vários jogos online para melhorar o seu vocabulário em inglês no http://www.wordplays.com/p/index e http://www.eastoftheweb.com/games/